Specific Learning Difficulties (SpLDs) such as Dyslexia, which primarily presents as difficulty with reading and writing tasks, Dyscalculia effects basic number conceptualisation/relationships and Dysgraphia, which creates challenges with letter formation and spacing through to organising thoughts and expressing ideas on paper.
Dyslexia is a common neurodevelopmental disorder affecting reading and language processing1.
Dyslexia can present in a variety of ways, including the following2:
Dyslexia may be noticed during primary school, when there are difficulties with blending sounds, recognising sight words and reading fluency. If it remains undiagnosed, difficulties will increase as secondary school demands more sophisticated use of language and better comprehension abilities when reading. Adults with undiagnosed dyslexia may encounter challenges in professional settings that require strong literacy skills, such as reading reports, writing emails, or interpreting complex documents. These difficulties can impact employment and daily life2,3,4.
Management aims to address the individual's specific needs and challenges. Educational interventions are key, focusing on improving reading skills, phonological awareness, and decoding strategies. These may include structured literacy programs, explicit instruction in phonics and multisensory approaches to reading instruction8.
Practical support such as text-to-speech software or audiobooks can facilitate reading comprehension and access to information. The educational setting should be involved from an early stage so that reasonable adjustments can be made in class, for homework, and during public examinations. Employers can seek advice about being dyslexia-friendly, and how to make reasonable adjustments for their employees with dyslexia9.
Dyscalculia is characterised by persistent difficulties in understanding and performing mathematical concepts and operations, despite normal intelligence and adequate educational opportunities10. Individuals with dyscalculia may struggle with basic arithmetic skills, as well as more complex mathematical tasks involving problem-solving, sequencing, and spatial reasoning.
The presentation of dyscalculia can vary widely among affected individuals. Some may have difficulty with numerical concepts, such as understanding quantity, place value, or number magnitude. Others may struggle with arithmetic operations, such as memorising mathematical facts, performing mental calculations, or understanding mathematical symbols and notations. Difficulties with attention, working memory, or language processing may co-exist, as many other learning difficulties such as dyslexia11
In children, dyscalculia may be recognised during primary school, if the child struggles with basic mathematical concepts, makes frequent errors in arithmetic calculations, or exhibits avoidance behaviours when faced with maths-related tasks. School-aged children with dyscalculia may also experience challenges in other academic areas that rely on mathematical skills, such as science or economics.
Challenges associated with dyscalculia can persist into adulthood, affecting time management, employment and the management of personal finances12,13.
Diagnosing dyscalculia typically involves standardised assessments of mathematical abilities, observations of mathematical performance in different contexts, and consideration of developmental history and educational background. It is essential to diagnose or rule out other conditions that may mimic dyscalculia or coexist with it, such as intellectual disability or specific learning disabilities in reading or attention13,14.
Educational interventions are key, focusing on improving mathematical understanding, problem-solving skills, and adaptive strategies for coping with mathematical difficulties. Accommodations in academic or vocational settings are also helpful, such as extended time on tests or public exams, or alternative formats for presenting mathematical information15. Adults will be helped by reasonable adjustments at work16.
Dysgraphia is a neurodevelopmental disorder affecting the expression of writing by hand17.
Presentation can vary and ranges from difficulties with letter formation and spacing, to challenges in organising ideas and expressing thoughts coherently on paper. Some people who are affected may have illegible handwriting, inconsistent letter sizes or difficulty maintaining appropriate spacing between words. Others may struggle with spelling accuracy, grammar, and punctuation. Fine motor deficits and language processing issues may co-exist18.
Dysgraphia may become apparent in primary school, when a child struggles with writing assignments, producing work that is messy, illegible, or riddled with spelling errors. These difficulties can lead to frustration, avoidance of writing tasks, and academic underachievement. In secondary school the demands for written expression increase, exacerbating the challenges. Ongoing difficulties can extend to adulthood with problems in filling out forms, writing reports, or composing emails. These difficulties can impact higher education, job opportunities, career advancement, and overall quality of life; this can affect work and day to day life19,20.
Management of dysgraphia includes occupational therapy, focusing on improving handwriting legibility, motor coordination, and writing fluency. Occupational therapists may provide structured interventions targeting letter formation, spacing, and overall writing mechanics. Other interventions may include voice-to-text software or word prediction programs19.
